Statistics: A Tool To Interpret Data

What Is Statistics?





Statistics is a discipline that includes the collection, organization, analysis, presentation, and interpretation of data. Statistical methods are used to design and analyze experiments and surveys. The theory and methods of statistics are applied to a wide variety of fields because data is involved in almost all areas of human endeavors. So, the application of statistical principles helps us in understanding more about the world around us.



Why Study Statistics?



Large complex data is ubiquitous in today's world and to deal with data the knowledge of statistics is very important.



• With the help of Statistics tools and conceptual foundations of quantitative reasoning, we can extract information intelligently from a sea of data.



• To conduct research effectively, one must have the knowledge of statistics. It is impossible to make decisions based on the data collected from the research project without the use of statistics.



• Statistics helps us in making a decision between two possibilities. We can decide which of the two possibilities is more likely to happen.



Statistics is used in so many areas of our lives that it has become very desirable to understand and learn statistics. Thus, the study of statistics prepares one for real life situations.



Statistics Study Tips



To succeed in a statistics class, one must know where and how to use concept and procedures to interpret data correctly. But there are many students who struggle with statistics, so here are some study tips for statistics.



• Statistics is neither too easy nor too difficult. If you are finding it hard to learn statistics, don't lose heart, it's just another subject you are trying to learn. If you will make some efforts you will learn it. Also, do not think that it's too easy. Because thinking so you result in losing interest in studying it.



• Work on as many problems as you can. It's impossible to learn statistics just by reading about it. If you don't have enough problems in your book, go online and download varied statistics problems to work on them.



• Set aside one or two hours to study statistics every day. Don't try to cover everything in one day by spending four to five hours on it. You may confuse one topic with another by studying many topics in a single day.



• Look for the recurring concepts. Try to master them. Ask your statistics tutor to emphasize on those concepts.



• Don't just learn formulas by heart, try to understand the concepts.



• Do group study once a week. Explaining concepts to each other increases understanding of a topic.



• If you are still finding it difficult, there are many options available to help you out, you can ask your instructor for an extra class, take the help of your peers or use online statistics help websites.

Online Statistics Tools for Students

 



Statistical tools are necessary regarding the analysis of the data collected either for some research or if they are the students of statistics. In both, the cases applying the tools is quite difficult as lengthy processes and calculations are required to be applied before the final output obtained. For easing out the process of the student's various companies have launched software and tools that used for making the calculation process quick and easy. Apart from easing the process of calculation these tools help the students to zero down the error rate and produce accurate results based on the input provided. Here is the list of few most popular software that would change the opinion of the students about the tough calculations involved in statistics.



1. SPSS







Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) is a software that has been launched by the IBM. This data is useful for the students as it allows them to do data entry and create various tables along with graphs to analyse the data thoroughly. This software is much applicable to the social sciences and buzz world, where the data to be managed, is move and calculations are lengthy. It can be easily installed on a computer running any version of Windows as well as for desktops having an open source operating system. The data is entered through the worksheet, and the various options are present to work on the data. For example, under the data option, you will have a list that includes multiple formats of searching, sorting and arranging it. Also, there is a choice of graphs that allows the user to plot graphs of different types depending upon the requirement of data. It is a Graphical User Interface (GUI), and no written commands are required. The only selection has to be made.



2. Stata







Stata is statistical analysis software developed in 1982 by StataCorp LP. Apart from data analysis, the software embeds a broad range of services like data management, plotting graphs, provides exact case-control statistics and various tests along with their predictions. This a list of the main features of Stata. There is much more to the software which in turn allows the quick processing of the data. Just one click and the data entered in the worksheet gets converted into a graph or a chart depending upon the requirement of the calculation. The software is available for almost all versions of various operating systems and thus is considered to be flexible. Varying versions of the software is available for ever-changing needs of the users. For example, some might use Stata/SE for large data sets while some of the users might be interested in using it for multiprocessor computers called Stata/MP. Thus, students can buy the version depending on their needs and data analysis.



 3. MS Excel







Microsoft Excel is a program that contains spreadsheets allowing the users to enter numerical values and formulae for calculations. This software is marked as highly useful for statistical calculations. It includes a list of methods and thus allows the users to just select the row and formula. There might be some methods that are no included in the list, but they can be appended manually by the user. Here is an additional feature which makes it all the more suitable for the users. It contains a list of different graphs that can be included in the calculation process making it easy for the user to display the results. In addition to the basic designs, there are a lot of new types of graphs included in the list. The pages are called spreadsheets and are in a tabular format. The users can work simultaneously on different sheets, and the collection of sheets is known as a work book. The users have to install the entire package of Microsoft Office for Excel to work properly. It is mainly available for Windows users.



4. Minitab 17





Here is one of the leading statistical software which was established in the year 1972. It is one of the most widely used software because all the great companies and colleges are using it. As per a survey, almost 90% of the total business firms and approximately 4000 colleges and universities are using this software for analysing their statistical data. This software is the highest version of the Minitab launched initially. This software is useful for even those who do not have any experience of the statistics. The software includes two main analyses namely, Design of Experiments and Multiple Regression. Apart from these new features, the users get access to the regular analysis methods like capability analysis hypothesis chart and control charts. Minitab 17 has gained acceptance around the globe, and for the same reason, the company has launched the product in various regional languages like French, English, German, Spanish and Chinese. The prompt customer support system is the backbone of the success story of Minitab 17.



5. R software







R is a termed as an open source programming language along with being software. It is specially designed for the statistical analysis of data along with providing graphical interpretations that are supported by R foundations only. It was developed with the motive of providing free availability of statistical analysis tool. It is an open source language and software that means it can be used to develop statistical tools along with providing them itself. It is mainly a command based software and less of GUI that makes it a bit tough to use. Thus, it is less popular these days as long codes are required to execute the statistical analysis and consumes time. However, for those who have a passion for programming in statistics, R acts as a blessing in disguise. It is possible for them to play with numbers and figures.



6. SAS (Statistical Analysis Software)





SAS is a statistical analysis platform that offers options to use either the GUI, or to create scripts for more advanced analyses. It is a premium solution that is widely used in business, healthcare, and human behavior research alike. It’s possible to carry out advanced analyses and produce publication-worthy graphs and charts, although the coding can also be a difficult adjustment for those not used to this approach.



Thus, all these tools have their unique features in form to produce the best results for any of the statistical data entered by the user. Some are command based while others have GUI, but the main motto is to get unified and accurate result in any situation.

The Probability of Compound Events - The Addition Rule





We've discussed the probability of simple events in a previous article. A simple event is basically just one event and determining its probability is usually straight forward. It is often that we need to know the probability of more than one event occurring. For example, what is the probability of getting heads or tails when flipping a coin? One event is getting the heads showing face up, and the other event is getting tails showing face up.  Since the only two outcomes here are heads or tails, we would have a 100% chance of getting a head or tails.



How did we get the result of 100%? The first event of getting heads has a probability of 1 divided by 2, or 0.5. The second event has a probability of 1 over 2, and also has a probability of 0.5. It follows than the probability of getting heads or tails, is the probability of the getting heads plus the probability of getting a tails which is 0.5 plus 0.5 or 1.0 which is 100%.



If we have a deck of playing cards, it has 52 cards, with four suites, and 13 cards to a suite, what would be the probability of randomly drawing an ace or a king? Following the last example, it would be the probability of the first event, getting ace, plus the probability of the other event, getting a king. There are four ways of getting an ace out of 52 possible outcomes making the probability of getting an ace 1 over 13. There are also four ways of getting a king, out of a possible 52 outcomes for a probability of 1 over 13. So the probability of getting an ace or a king is 2 over 13, the sum of the two probabilities. It is important to note these two events are mutually exclusive. This means that getting an ace and a king on the same card is not a possible outcome.



What is the probability of drawing one ace out of the deck, or a black card?  Remember that two of the suites are black for a total of 26 black cards. As in the previous example we need the probability of the first event, drawing an ace, and that is 4 over 52. The probability of drawing a black card is 26, the number of ways of drawing a black card, divided by 52, the total number of outcomes, which is one half. That would make the probability of getting an ace or a black card 4 over 52, plus 26 over 52, for a probability of 30 over 52.



This probability of 30 over 52 is NOT correct. The reason is that these two events are NOT mutually exclusive. Two of the aces are also black, which means that getting an ace and a black card at the same time is a possible outcome. In the above calculation we counted the outcome of a black ace twice. The probability of drawing a card that is an ace and a black card must be subtracted from the above result. So the probability of getting a black ace is 2 out of 52 possible outcomes, making the probability of getting an ace or a black card, 30 over 52, minus 2 over 52, for a result of 28 over 52, or 7 over 13.


How Long Has Farming Been Around?

         



   If you are in farming, it's sometimes possible to start to think that you and only you understand just what's involved with respect to both the hardships and the rewards.



In fact, you are far from being alone both today and in terms of your ancestors!



Of course, while many people understand that farming has been around a long time, they may not quite grasp just how long a period that has been. In fact, the history of farming has been revised several times, even within the relatively recent past.



Where did it all begin?



Although the shelves of prestigious libraries are full of books on the subject, you'll probably find a huge variation of ideas on just where the first farming occurred.



At one time, it was assumed to be various parts of the Middle East but today this is viewed, with some suspicion, as being rather European or more accurately near-European centric. There is evidence for ancient farming in these areas but also that it seems to have sprung up separately and more or less at the same time in several other parts of the world.



Some of the earliest evidence for what appears to be the processing and systematic use of seeds and grains comes from a site on the Sea of Galilee that goes back to almost 20,000 BCE. That isn't to say that the seeds and grains arose as a result of farming of course. What it does show though is that 22,000 years ago, people were trying to take various plant-based products and transform them into other things including foodstuff.



How long have there been farmers?



This is another question that academics will tell you is up for debate.



What is generally accepted is that there is strong evidence for farming in several different parts of the world sometime around about 10,000-12,000 years ago.



It's possible to see preserved agricultural tools from the remains of some of the world's oldest civilizations. So, farmers might well be able to throw their hat in the ring as contenders for the title of 'the world's oldest profession'!



Why did people start farming?



This is perhaps the most controversial subject in early human archaeology and sociology.



It'll come as no surprise to hear that nobody really knows but a number of hypotheses have been put forward.



Whilst these are enthusiastically debated and may never be proven one way or another, several have at their core the notion that people moved away or were forced to move away from a nomadic lifestyle. Ideas as to what caused that range from climate change to social revolution and on to population growth or the development of established religion.



What is clear and almost equally hard to explain, is that these changes did not take place in all societies across the globe. For example, the North American Plains Indians / Native Americans remained a largely hunter-gatherer society.



What does this mean for farming today?



Arguably nothing! Today's farmer is busy worrying about the business metrics of farming, machinery and so on. This history may seem all very dusty and academic.



However, it's interesting to think just how long the concepts of civilisation and farming have been totally and inextricably interlinked. It's arguably the case that one has always supported the other.



It's perhaps an association with an importance that some of the world's politicians should keep in mind today.



Michelle W. is an author and provider of a wide range of agriculture and farm machinery like Kubota mowers, zero turn mowers, utility vehicles, [http://www.whitestractors.com.au/blog/89-can-t-find-that-spare-part-for-your-tractor-mower-or-pump.html]Kubota spare parts and hey equipments. Also deals in used [http://www.whitestractors.com.au/about.html]farm machinery in Goulburn.



Article Source: [http://EzineArticles.com/?How-Long-Has-Farming-Been-Around?&id=8821912] How Long Has Farming Been Around?

How Does Fashion Influence the Lives of Students?

By Benish Rehman



    This is an era of fashion and fashion is very influential to our lives. In fact, it adds diversity to our lives by offering an aspect of enthusiasm to strive for something new and different, otherwise it would be a monotonous life if we were supposed to dress up and act in the same manner.





Fashion is an expression of a distinctive style particularly in clothing, footwear, accessories or makeup. It belongs to the style of doing something, looking different and dealing with others. It encircles a wide range of categorization like behavior, speech, actions, manners and lifestyle. There is much intellectual discussion over fashion and clothing and their importance within present day society. Fashion and clothing can be defined as many things that hold our society together. Fashion can be defined as an existing norm or style of dress, manners and way of socializing, whereas clothing is defined as garments collectively. If fashion and clothing were eliminated from our lives there would be no room for individuality and the world's population would be the same. There also would be a loss of the distinctions between social classes, which was much defined in the 18th century but is still present today. The eradication of fashion and clothing would also change the dynamics of the social world and social relationships.



Mod, short form of 'modern', refers to a youth lifestyle that came out from London during 1960s and quickly spread to other parts of the world. Being fashionable is not only desirable but also satisfying. It is very usual that the young students get attracted to fashion the most and start following the trends instantly so fashion influences our youth strongly. Fashion continually has an impact on the society. It affects our views and attitude towards social culture. We introduce new ways of lifestyle through fashion and create awareness within ourselves to reinstate a new line of customs. It is a leading social statement for students to make an outside appearance to their social circle. Malcolm Barnard says in his book Fashion as Communication, "Fashion and clothing have always been explained as forms of communication" (39). Students use fashion to exchange their feelings and beliefs. They use fashion as a way of social contact with reference to scrutiny for all sorts of people. Fashion is a way of communication to convey with the world what their personality really says.



The decade of 1920 is called the Age of Flaming Youth because of its wild and jazzy expression. In this period the energy of youth was set free in a new way and no style seemed too ridiculous to become a high fashion. Our world has globalized. Celebrities play very important role in the lives of youth. Students look up to their favorite icons to keep themselves up to date. While watching television or using internet, they can easily be attracted by a variety of fashionable concepts. Moreover, the students idealize their favorite celebrities and they always have a desire to look like them so they do their best to imitate the appearance and lifestyle of their idols. They are trying to grasp all the existing fashion from their society to enhance their personality. Whenever they socialize, they talk about new things which could be adapted. They use non-natural way of expression, speech and mannerism in their routine lives which is relatively artificial.



In my point of view, there are two categories i.e. positive and negative impact of fashion on students.



The fashion in our society has a lot of negative impact on students. They only think about new fashion and this result in spending of a large amount of money. Therefore, they are not able to become aware of other important needs of life. It always distracts them from studies. Once a style or fashion gets in a trend, it is instantly chased by student community regardless of the fact that how much hassle it leads to. On the other hand they are caught in the confusion of fashion due to impact of society. To follow a certain fashion, one has to adopt some actions and to do so some students go beyond their limits just to attract their surroundings. Eventually they become hopeless instead of being ingenious and suffered from depression for being within fashion. On the other hand, it is also a thought that the money spending on Fashion could be spent for various other purposes like charity and helping the poor.



Fashion creates an inaccessible standard for students. They all want to be attractive and glamorous like the celebrities on television or in magazines hence they spend a lot of time and money just to build up a good impression on people around them. However, they fail to make a statement most of the time that leads to a low self esteem. It also creates a clash of thoughts between them and their friends that may lead to jealousy factor and as a result ruin their relationship with friends. Students start judging people by their outlook appearance and those who cannot spend sufficient amount on their outward look, eventually become persecuted which decreased their confidence level to certain extent.



Students who give more concentration to fashion are generally least conscious about their studies. They think that by adopting certain fashion trends, they will achieve certain distinction among the peers therefore they start giving less importance to their academic careers.



There are some positive points of being fashionable as well. For instance, when teenagers feel good because of the way they look, it gives a high sense of worth and confidence in their personalities. Moreover they feel more independent and acceptable in a social context. If students follow a certain trend, it facilitates them to recognize their own personalities by meeting different people from the society with the same interests and sense of style. Wearing trendy clothes shows a person's status. People assume a person more progressive if he is wearing fashionable clothes. Malcolm Barnard says in his book Fashion as Communication, "Fashion and clothing have always been explained as forms of communication"



Students eventually come to know that it's not good for them to follow or imitate others all the time. Instead, they should learn how to be innovative and make their own sense of style. That helps them to be more strong, independent and imaginative. Fashion is the name of expressing oneself.It proves that the people have liberty to feel comfortable about themselves and that results in a more successful and prosperous society.



Fashion is a form of art and because art is beneficial to society so same goes for fashion as well.Fashion is a big reason for companies to invest more into the expansion of latest clothing, trends, and better living. We cannot disagree with the fact that fashion has a significant place on the life of every student. At times, it can be the source of things that make the life more pleasant. On the other hand, it can be destructive for the lives of certain people. So it's better to keep yourself modernized with fashion but if it is damaging your academic performance by any mean, you should keep yourself away from that. Generally, fashion can be entertaining, exciting and harmless. Fashion is a money making method that can provide employment to thousands of people.



There should be stability in the lives of students while pursuing fashion. They should be aware of the fact that the fashion within limits is admirable but when the limits are crossed, they have to face many problems. Their prime responsibility is to fill up themselves with the asset of knowledge instead of running after the wildness of deceptive fashion world. There should be a right balance between being fashionable and getting away from our roots. Students should know the fact that they have maximum time to indulge themselves to the world of lavishness after they completed their studies.So they should give their utmost devotion to education presently for time and tide waits for none.



Being trendy and fashionable is just our own wish, no one can force us to do it and it's our own decision that how much and what type of fashion we prefer according to place and requirement. Though this time of 21st century in Pakistan mostly people are affected by glamorous world and style of fashion but still they have not forgotten our traditions and culture which is the priority and symbol of our country.

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